This study explores a pilot-scale approach to treating produced water using a combination of fractional freeze desalination and reverse osmosis. It investigates how effectively this hybrid system can remove salts and contaminants to make the water suitable for reuse. The paper highlights the potential of this integrated method to address water scarcity while managing high-salinity industrial wastewater efficiently.

Untreated PW caused cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and estrogenic activity. Thermal distillation reduced toxicity, and subsequent GAC + zeolite post-treatment eliminated residual hormonal and toxic effects.

Evaluates pretreatment options for high-salinity PW using modeling. Electrocoagulation with activated carbon was most effective, balancing treatment efficiency with environmental and waste considerations.

Modeled pretreatment technologies (chemical softening, coagulation, electrocoagulation, GAC) for cost, energy, and CO₂ emissions. EC+GAC was optimal for high-salinity PW from the Permian Basin, supporting minimal- or zero-liquid discharge.

Investigates public perceptions of nontraditional water reuse, focusing on oil and gas produced water in New Mexico, using survey responses from 657 participants.

Low-temperature thermal distillation reduced salinity, major ions, heavy metals, ammonia, and organics, but residual compounds caused toxicity, highlighting the need for additional polishing steps.

Combining low-temp thermal distillation with GAC and zeolite post-treatment reduced contaminants to below detection limits, achieving non-toxic effluents suitable for reuse and discharge.

Au-TiO2-coated ceramic membranes improved distillate flux, removed >99.9% salts and >96% dissolved organic carbon from Permian Basin produced water (~118 g/L salinity). Only 2-butanone and acetone detected in distillates with 70–80% removal.

Tests diluted highly saline produced water on Atriplex species. Both species are suitable for reuse of saline produced water for degraded rangelands in SE New Mexico.

Evaluated PMD with/without UV light vs standard VMD. Non-targeted chemical analysis and toxicity prediction effectively assessed treatment efficiency and potential public health/environmental impacts.

Evaluates economic feasibility of nontraditional water sources (municipal wastewater, desalinated brackish water, tPW, seawater) for agriculture. Highlights challenges: cost, energy demand, concentrate disposal, and soil salinity.

Photocatalytic membrane distillation with TiO2 coating reduces fouling, improves distillate quality. UV-LED activation enhanced organic carbon removal from 82.0% to 89.7%, while ammonia and metals removal remained high (99.4% and >99.99%).

Reviews challenges of treated produced water reuse outside oil and gas sectors, including complex chemistry, toxicity data gaps, and regulatory needs. Proposes a holistic pathway for treatment, management, and fit-for-purpose reuse.

Details historical development of produced water treatment, disposal practices, and available technologies. Discusses challenges and provides recommendations for integrating emerging technologies into oil and gas operations.

Used decline-curve analysis, type-curves, and historical production data to develop a robust method for PW volume quantification and prediction at basin level; applied to Permian Basin.

Greenhouse study on five perennial cool-season forages irrigated with RO, diluted RAW, RAW, and tap water. Desalinated and diluted produced water could alleviate water demand in arid regions.

Uses life cycle assessment and cost analysis to explore challenges and hesitancy in the petroleum industry regarding external reuse of produced water. Offers recommendations for long-term environmental sustainability.

Reviews regulatory frameworks for produced water management and reuse in major U.S. oil and gas regions, including Appalachian Basin, California, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming.

Framework developed for estimating produced water supply and demand for reuse in agriculture, dust suppression, power generation, and river flow augmentation.

Quantitative analysis of 300+ organics, inorganics, and radionuclides in PW and Pecos River surface water, providing baseline data to inform PW reuse and decision-making.

Developed PW-ESESim, a GUI-based tool for comparing PW sources, treatment, and reuse strategies. Supports evaluation of health, safety, economic benefits, and risk.

In vitro toxicity assessment using aquatic microorganisms identified high salinity, organics, metals, and ammonia as major toxicity drivers needing removal for safe reuse.

Reviews the fundamentals of photocatalytic membrane reactors (PMRs), factors influencing performance, rational design strategies, and evaluation metrics for produced water treatment.

Detected ²²⁴Ra, ²²⁶Ra, ²²⁸Ra, dissolved salts, divalent cations, and high TDS in hydraulic fracturing wastes, highlighting radiological risks in PW handling.

Applied machine learning to historical PW data from New Mexico Permian Basin to predict PW quantity and quality across different well types.

CAPER system for Permian Basin produced water is low-cost and robust, achieving high removal of salts, heavy metals, and multiple cations (Ca, Na, Mg, Mn, Ni, Se, Sr, V).

Demonstrates MICP using ureolytic bacteria to remove Ca²⁺ and toxic contaminants from high-salinity produced water.

Reviews analytical techniques for PW characterization including field sampling, sample preservation, pretreatment, and analysis of organic, inorganic, radioactive, and biological components.

Critical review on how membrane characteristics, feed composition, and operating conditions affect water flux, mass transport, heat transfer, and salt rejection in membrane distillation.

Reviews photocatalysis-based treatment of produced water, discussing influencing factors, efficiency improvements, recent advances, and future research directions.

Provides datasets on produced water volumes, county-level water use, and water quality related to oil and gas production.

Investigates volume and quality of produced water in major U.S. shale plays and potential reuse options (irrigation, municipal, industrial, recharge, hydraulic fracturing).

Compares chemical coagulation (FeCl₃, Al₂(SO₄)₃) with electrocoagulation for removing suspended contaminants. Also evaluates innovative filter media for refining treated water for reuse in hydraulic fracturing.

Demonstrates recovery of struvite fertilizer from produced water after calcium pretreatment. Recovered struvite is high quality, free of heavy metals and organic contaminants.

Statistically and geostatistically evaluated geochemical variability of PW from Guadalupian to Ordovician formations in western Permian Basin using USGS databases.

VBA-based decision support tool to select treatment technology combinations for various alternative water sources and reuse options (potable, irrigation, discharge, power cooling).

Extended iDST application for PW from Marcellus Shale (PA) and Barnett Shale (TX), guiding selection of treatment technologies and reuse strategies.

Investigates reuse of treated produced water (tPW) at varying salinities on soil, microbes, and alfalfa growth. Moderate salinity (≤1000 mg/L) sustains soil health and enhances forage quality; high salinity (1500 mg/L) causes degradation.